Biodiesel Development and Progress 12/07

Title: Biodiesel Development and Progress
Author: Michael P. Miller
Date: December 3, 2007
Posted at Site: http://mygreenproducts.blogspot.com/tp://www.mygreenproducts.com/

Introduction
In the 1890’s, an inventor named Rudolf Diesel presented a piece of equipment that would later be known as a compression diesel engine. Various fuels were used to run Diesel’s engine, including vegetable and peanut oil. As the 20th century progressed, petroleum became cheaper and more accessible with the introduction of gasoline automobiles. As petro production refined crude oil to supply gasoline, surplus distillate was left. This is an excellent fuel source for diesel engines and at a much lower cost than agricultural based diesel. This led to the decline of biodiesel fuels for about seventy years.

The Mid East oil crisis of the 1970’s struck a renewed interest in alternatives to petro fuel. Serious partnerships were developed with the newly established US Environmental Protection Agency, US Department of Energy, US Department of Transportation and the US Department of Defense. It became clear that exploring renewable fuels would not only enhance the community’s health, and provide the potential of local economic benefits, but also focus energy supply away from unstable petrol producing states. Over the next twenty five years the commercial production of biodiesel increased, finding solid ground in the 1990’s.

Sometimes consumers confuse biodiesel and vegetable oil fuels. Biodiesel is made from renewable agricultural sources such as vegetable oils. Most of the United States sources are soybean, waste cooking grease (or yellow grease), and animal fats. The European Union (EU) utilizes rapeseed and sunflower oil, with palm oil the source in South East Asia. Biodiesel may contain from 1 to 100% renewable agricultural oils/fuels, also known as B-1 and B-100 (pure biodiesel). Today the most popular percentage is B-20 or 20% agricultural oils to 80% petro based diesel.

"Enough virgin soy oil, recycled restaurant grease, and other feedstocks are readily available in the United States to provide feedstock for about 1.7 billion gallons of biodiesel per year (under policies designed to encourage biodiesel use). This represents roughly 5% of on-road diesel used in the United States. "

Source: US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biodiesel Production [2]
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.html

Background
On October 24, 1992 the US Congress passed the Energy Policy Act (EPAct) [26] fleet requirements to build a self-sustaining alternative fuel market. This initiated development of a strong framework for non-petroleum based fuels, including biodiesel. This was intended to fortify the America’s energy security while reducing their environmental footprint. EPAct encourages the use of non-petroleum based, lower climate changing and/or renewable fuels. A short summery is listed below:

• B100 (100% agriculturally derived biodiesel fuel)




• Ethanol B-85 (Blends of 85% alcohol with gasoline)




• Methanol, ethanol, and other alcohols




• Natural gas domestically




• Liquefied petroleum gas




• Coal-derived liquid fuels




• Hydrogen




• P-Series (mixture of ethanol's)

In 2003, the European CommissionsBiofuels Directive [43] set Member State target dates for the use of biofuels (ex. Biodiesel) and other renewable fuels for transportation. To help meet the 2010 target of 5.75% market share for biofuels in the overall transport fuel, the European Commission has integrated the EU Strategy for Biofuels [44] along seven policy triggers listed below:

• Stimulating demand for biofuels
• Develop environmental benefits
• Develop production of biofuels
• Expand feedstock supplies
• Enhance biofuel trade
• Support developing countries
• Research and development

Development & Production
Producing biodiesel can be accomplished in a number of ways. One includes the reaction of animal fat or vegetable oil with an alcohol (ex. methanol or ethanol), interacting with a catalyst such as caustic soda or lye (sodium hydroxide) to initiate the chemical reaction conversion into biodiesel (methyl-ester fuel). Oils and fats are pre-filtered and pre-treated to remove water and contaminants. The entire reaction is also known as transesterification. The products are methyl esters and glycerin (a waste byproduct sold back into the manufacturing process for pharmaceutical products and cosmetics). Biodiesel can utilize oils from agricultural oil products like rapeseed, cotton seed, sunflower seed, soybean as well as waste frying vegetable oils.

Schematic from U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Biomass Program [4]
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/abcs_biofuels.html#biodfeed

The biodiesel industry is growing rapidly production tripling from 2005 to 2006 shown by EERE US Biodiesel Production Map [10]. For more information see below;

• EERE Biomass Oil Analysis: Research Needs and Recommendations
• National Biodiesel Board's Biodiesel Production Fact Sheet
• National Biodiesel’s Board Map of Biodiesel Producers

Schematic from -US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Biodiesel Production Map [10]
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/biodiesel_plants.pdf

Several parameters need to be examined to help assure the correct use of biodiesel, including but not limited to percentage of biodiesel, manufacturers warranty, EPA emission ratings [23], compliance with fuel purity, and type of biodiesel chosen. The NREL has a detailed report on Biodiesel Blends [36].

Raw vegetable oil does not meet U.S. biodiesel government fuel specifications, as it is not registered with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and it is not a legal motor fuel. Although the production process can be viewed as simple, self made biodiesel is not recommended. Use of a commercial distributor is always recommended to help assure compliance with the various standards such as or the California Air Resources Board (CARB), ASTM D6751 or the European Union CEN Standardization (EN14214). The NREL has a guideline on Biodiesel Handling and Use Guidelines [37] that can provide more detail.

Although the United States has been growing in biodiesel production and use, the EU countries are forming their own path. Production plants are located in various countries including Germany, Italy, Austria, France and Sweden. Currently there are specific EU legislation to promote and regulate the use of biodiesel in various countries such as Austria, France, Germany, Italy and Sweden.

Benefits

“Biodiesel has a number of important benefits;
... help reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil
... significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction of carbon monoxide
... B-100 reduces lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by more than 50 percent
... B-20 reduces GHG emissions by at least 10 percent
... reduces potentially hazardous petro diesel vehicle emissions of different hydrocarbon chains, various sized particulate matter (PM or Soot), benzene, toluene, xylene, sulfate”

Source: US EPA SmartWay GrowandGo [21]
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/smartway/growandgo/documents/420f06044.pdf,

The U.S. EERE [1] states the net petroleum imports were over 11 million barrels of oil per day in 2003. Of this, 24% was refined into diesel fuel and heating oil for use in vehicles, boats, and heavy equipment. Biodiesel can be a domestically produced, potentially environmentally friendly consumed, renewable substitute for petro diesel. The U.S. imports more than 60% of its petroleum, 2/3 is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. The United States and EU are vulnerable to countries providing petro diesel.

The full biodiesel life-cycle was analyzed by the Department of Energy who found that for every unit of petro fuel used to produce biodiesel, 3.2 units of energy were gained. Compare that to petro’s diesel's life cycle yielding only 0.83 units of fuel product energy. Soybean oils producing B-100 biodiesel reduces life cycle CO2 emissions by 78%, B- 5 blend reduces life cycle CO2 emissions by 3.8%. Various reports differ on these numbers, because it is based on how you weigh the production costs. All fuel combustion, including biodiesel, release carbon dioxide, but due to the agricultural photosynthesis reaction whereby plants use CO2 for growth, one can see the potential theory for balancing the CO2 net effect. Some calculations weigh in favor of biodiesel because the net affect of growing agricultural products, such as soybeans, reduce the life cycle carbon dioxide emissions released from biodiesel combustion. Biodiesel contains energy from other energy sources, such as solar, compared to long ago fossil fuel stored energy.

Source EPA Biodiesel [25]
http://www.epa.gov/region09/waste/biodiesel/questions.html

Other studies have shown B-100 providing tailpipe reduction in particulate matter (PM) emissions (10%), CO (11%), and unburned HC (21%). It seems that any amount of blended biodiesel can provide some emission benefit in these categories. According to the NREL and EPA the amount emissions are reduced depends on the blend level (see graph below). In the 1998 NREL, “An Overview of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel Life Cycles [40]” study, findings for a comprehensive "cradle to grave" inventory of materials utilized, energy consumed, and waste emissions generated were compiled by comparing petro diesel with biodiesel. This attempted to compare the total "lifecycle" costs and benefits of each. Bullet points from study are listed below;

• tailpipe emissions of hydrocarbons (formation components of smog and ozone) are 37% lower for biodiesel than petro diesel fuel.
• notes caution about drawing hard conclusions related to the total life cycle emissions of hydrocarbons from other diesel sources
• carbon monoxide lifecycle emissions are reduced by 35% and 46% for tailpipe emissions compared to petro diesel
• overall lifecycle emissions of carbon dioxide are 78% lower than petro diesel
• petroleum diesel generates roughly five times as much wastewater flow as biodiesel
• hazardous solid wastes from biodiesel is 96% lower than petro diesel
• fuel economy is approximated at 2-1 0% lower for biodiesel compared to petro diesel
• lifecycle emissions of particulate matter are 32% lower and tailpipe emissions of PM1 0 are 68% lower
• total particulate matter or soot in tailpipe exhaust is reduced by 83.6%
• lifecycle emissions of sulfur oxides (components of acid rain) are 8% lower and 100% eliminated from tailpipe emissions
• lifecycle emissions of methane are 3.0% lower
• biodiesel has a higher cetane number, but slightly lower energy content than petro diesel, providing better performance and lubrication, but a decrease in fuel economy (2-10%)
• biodiesel provides similar horsepower and torque as petro diesel, btu/gallon is 0.892, see EIA graph below;

Source: US Energy Information Administration, Biofuels in the US Transportation Sector, Feb 2007 [29]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biomass.html

See the US EPA emission graph below;

Graph from: U.S. EPA, 2002 A Comprehensive Analyses of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions [24]
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_benefits.html

Biodiesel can biodegrade faster than petro diesel providing smaller risk in marine and aquifer spills, while reducing the amount of hazardous waste and chemical infusion necessary for petro diesel production. Biodiesel waste can, in some cases, be absorbed into other manufacturing processes such as pharmaceuticals. This provides strong support in full lifecycle assessments. Biodiesel also has a higher flashpoint, potentially reducing certain combustible risks. The cetane index for petro diesel ranges from 40 to 52, biodiesel ranges from about 46 to 57. This means biodiesel tends to ignite more easily. See the EERE Biodiesel Benefits [6] data page.

In addition, some studies have shown biodiesel to provide higher fuel lubricity than petro which can reduce wear in diesel engines. Lubricity will become increasingly important because several US EPA regulations requiring ultra-low sulfur diesel use in engines. More details can be found on this information at the EIA biodiesel analysis [31] site.

The US EPA noted biodiesel exhaust has a reduced harmful impact on human health than petro diesel. Reduced levels of 50-90% for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitrated PAH compounds (nPAH) help support this fact due to their links as potential cancer causing compounds.

Finally, by re instituting a biodiesel production and use program, the host country can generate several potential economic sources of revenue, industry and employment development.

Challenges
Biodiesel does not answer the petro fuel problems without raising a few of its own. Here are some of the issues cited by critics as well as supports of biodiesel.

• Using biodiesel above 20% can cause concerns with engine parts such as hoses and gaskets that were designed for petro diesel.
• The higher biodiesel percentage you go the potential for lower energy content per unit presents itself.
• “Energy content per gallon of biodiesel is approximately 11 percent lower than petroleum diesel, and vehicles running on a biodiesel blend will achieve fewer miles per gallon of fuel” see EIA analysis paper [32].
• Due to higher solvency, engine clogging issues can arise with machinery previously using petro diesel. Petro diesel forms deposits on the walls an in the engine fuel systems. Biodiesel can dislodge those deposits, clogging fuel lines and filters.
• Biodiesel at higher percentages can gel in low-temperatures, reducing the ability of the fuel to flow to the engine. Yellow or waste oil seems to be worse in this area than soybean oil.

According to the EIA feedstock cost of the oil or grease is the largest component of biodiesel production costs. Waste oil or yellow grease is less expensive than soybean oil, but its supply is limited to food services industry sources. The EIA table below shows energy and operating costs in addition to the cost of the raw materials. Bottom line is biodiesel can still costs more, only with heavy government support via grants and tax credits, biodiesel has been able to compete.

Source: Energy Information Administration[33]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/plugs/plbiodsl.html

According to the NREL nitrogen oxides (NOx), which contribute to smog formation, may increase slightly when biodiesel is used. B20 believed to increase NOx by 2%-4%. Numbers vary however, with several biodiesel researchers working to analyze the EPA data as well as design reduced engine emissions. Certain lifecycle reports show hydrocarbons emissions were greater with biodiesel than petro, even though the tailpipe emissions were lower in biodiesel.

Gasoline powered vehicles and engines tend to emit less soot and smog-forming components than diesel. The downside to current diesels is that they produce many times the potential toxins than gasoline, especially nitrogen oxide emissions, if the EPA data is used. Diesel’s challenge will be designing an engine to meet or exceed gasoline engines. They will be better over the next few years, but doubtful if they can surpass gasoline engines.

Although biodiesel is available in all 50 US states and through out the EU, it is still not ubiquitous at all retail fuel stations. Additionally without tax incentives and grants biodiesel would have a hard time competing with petro diesel. The range varies from country to country and state to state. Some have requirements to utilize a certain portion of government fleets with biodiesel, others provide subsides to the producer or purchaser. To review the US Federal regulation visit www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/FedRegBioFinal.pdf. For individual states that either reduces fuel taxes or provides other incentives for biodiesel visit www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/laws/incen_laws.html.

Source: US Energy Information Administration, Biofuels in the US Transportation Sector, Feb 2007 [29]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biomass.html

Currently the price of biodiesel varies depending on your geographic area, which base material is used (soybeans, waste oil, etc.), and supplier. Even with incentives, biodiesel is more expensive in large populated areas. See the US EIA data below;

US EIA Overall Average Fuel Prices [7]
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/afpr_mar_07.pdf

US EIA Gasoline and Diesel Price Averages [7]
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/afpr_mar_07.pdf

Large volume biodiesel production raises concerns by environmentalist and biodiesel critics. Increased pesticide use, land-use impacts, wildlife habitat sustainability, minimizing soil erosion, fertilizers, and most important competition for food crops in a world were people are starving daily.

Current Outlook 2007-2008
The U.S. EIA estimates biodiesel can be produced from soybean oil for $1.80 to $2.40 per gallon and from yellow grease for $0.90 to $1.10 per gallon. Feedstock costs for virgin soybean oil… vary between $0.20 and $0.30 per pound, constitute 70 to 78 percent of final production costs. Non-virgin feedstocks generally are cheaper, ranging from virtually no cost (for reclaimed restaurant trap grease) to 70 percent of the final production cost. For the production costs calculated above, virgin soybean oil was assumed to cost $0.26 per pound, and yellow grease was valued at 50 percent of the cost of an equivalent amount of soybean oil.

The U.S. biodiesel industry relies almost exclusively on soybean oil as a feedstock... At production levels nearing 300 to 600 million gallons of biodiesel per year (less than 2 percent of the diesel fuel pool), the marginal cost of using soybean oil as a feedstock rises to the point where other oilseeds—canola, rapeseed, sunflower, and cottonseed—become viable feedstocks. There are no significant differences in processing for the numerous biodiesel feedstocks… The major differences among biodiesel feedstocks are regional availability, co-product value, and the composition of fatty acids in the refined vegetable oil.

Source: US EIA, Biofuels in the US Transportation Sector, Feb 2007 [29]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biomass.html

Source: US Energy Information Administration, Biofuels in the US Transportation Sector, Feb 2007 [29]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biomass.html

The EERE Biodiesel Report [2] shows the U.S. biodiesel industry is small but growing rapidly. Production tripled from 2004 to 2005 and again from 2005 to 2006. In 2005 The EPA's [21] data shows 75 million gallons of B-100 biodiesel were sold. Today, approximately 600 fleets nationwide use biodiesel blends.
Biodiesel consumption in the transportation sector represented a much smaller volume of biofuels than ethanol, but it increased almost fourfold from 2004 to 2005.

Biodiesel Consumption in the Transportation Sector 2001-2005[28]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/rentrends.html

“In 2004, 25 million gallons of B100 were sold. By 2005, that number had tripled. Today, approximately 600 fleets nationwide use biodiesel blends in their diesel engines, and biodiesel is available in its various blends at approximately 800 locations across the United States.”

Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, Biodiesel Fact Sheet [22]
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/growandgo/documents/factsheet-biodiesel.htm

Prices for B100 can be twice as high as conventional diesel, while lower biodiesel blends show more modest increases. The pump price for biodiesel varies regionally and depends both on the source of the fuel and the percent blend with conventional diesel. There are a number of retail stations offering biodiesel around the country. To start your search, try out the US Department of Energy’s website [8].

All renewable energy sources have been increasing in recent years (except wood derived), due in part to the large increase to petro prices. Biodiesel is included in the biofuel section of the EIA chart below. Biofuel consumption for all renewable energy was 27.6%, which includes ethanol.


Several tax and grant incentive programs have been developed over the past several years. A quick view of several US federal programs http://www.energy.gov/taxbreaks.htm, are listed below:

• Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act (SAFETEA)
• Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program
• www.fhwa.dot.gov/reauthorization/index.htm
• Eligible activities include;
• transit improvements
• travel demand management strategies
• traffic flow improvements
• idle reduction equipment
• alternative refueling infrastructure
• public fleet conversions to cleaner fuels
• Biodiesel and Ethanol (VEETC) Tax Credit
• Small Agri-Biodiesel Producer Credit
• A tax credit of $.10 per gallon to small agri-biodiesel producers up to 15 million gallons
• Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) of 1988
• http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/CAFE/Rulemaking/AMFAFinalRule2004.htm
• EPA’s Clean School Bus USA
• http://www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus/index.htm
• Operate school buses with alternative fuels or low-sulfur diesel
• EPAct requires
• Certain federal fleets to decrease petro consumption by 2% per year
• Certain fleets to buy alternate fuel light duty vehicles
• DOE's plans to replace 30% of petro-based fuels by 2010
• 75% of new light-duty vehicles acquired by federal fleets must be alternate fuel
• A tax credit to buyers of new alternative fuel vehicles
• EPA’s Clean Construction USA
• http://www.epa.gov/cleandiesel/construction/grants.htm
• Promotes the reduction of diesel exhaust emissions from construction equipment and/or vehicles
• EPA’s Clean Cities Initiative
• http://www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/
• Volunteer coalitions of many cities which develop partnerships to promote alternative fuels
• EPA’s Clean Port USA
• http://www.epa.gov/cleandiesel/ports/
• Reduce emissions by encouraging port operators to retrofit or replace petro diesel engines alternate fuels

For more information on individual US State energy programs go to http://www.eere.energy.gov/state_energy_program/.

The EERE Renewable Diesel website [9] shows interesting information on a new blend called E-Diesel. A fuel that combines additives to blend ethanol with diesel. Normal percentages of ethanol in diesel are around 10%. E-Diesel is still a work in progress mainly for use in heavy duty trucks, buses, and farm machinery. So far the EERE reports a 7-10% mileage decrease with E-diesel use. The environmental benefits are reduced emissions of PM 27% to 41%, carbon monoxide 20% to 27%, and nitrogen oxides 4% to 5%.

Conclusion
“The EIA estimates that demand for biodiesel will be at least 6.5 million gallons in 2010 and 7.3 million gallons in 2020. These estimates are based on potential fleet demand for biodiesel to comply with the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Based on biodiesel's potential as a lubricity additive, demand could reach as much as 470 million gallons in 2010 and 630 million gallons in 2020. Biodiesel from yellow grease is closer to being cost-competitive with petroleum diesel than biodiesel from soybean oil, but the available supply of yellow grease will probably limit its use for biodiesel production. Unless soybean oil prices decline dramatically, biodiesel will not be produced at a cost that is competitive with petroleum diesel. The largest market for biodiesel probably will be as a fuel additive. Markets may also develop in applications where reducing emissions of particulates and unburned hydrocarbons is paramount, such as school and transit buses.”

Source: US Energy Information Administration [33]
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/plugs/plbiodsl.html

After reviewing the sources identified in this article, the author agrees with the EIA statement above. In addition, the concerns of land use and food scarcity must be addressed to make this a sustainable form of fuel. Starvation and environmental damage are real concerns with certain feedstock production techniques. If the demand was to increase exponentially, more damage could be done than if petro diesel were used. Without long term government and private sector research commitment, the biodiesel adoption will regress if petro diesel prices recede. Finding alternatives to food based crops will be essential for economic sustainability. This could include rapeseed, algae, and cellular fuel processes.

To fully assess the impact of biodiesel a full life cycle emissions per unit of energy must be analyzed. This poses challenges for consensus; feedstock used for biodiesel captures carbon dioxide during the photosynthesis process, but how you determine the full impact of this carbon capture is determined how you model the energy requirements to grow and reap the feedstock. The pollution produced by farming varies with equipment, fertilizers, techniques used, and the refining processes. To convert feedstock into biodiesel models and calibrations. Currently there is no one scientific analytical modeling approach for full biodiesel lifecycle emissions.

Additionally an economic sustainable business model needs to be developed, free of government incentives. Although in the short term tax incentives and tariffs are necessary for biodiesel domestic production and adoption Governments will need to redirect financial support to long term research of sustainable aricultural fuel and conservation. Fuel efficiency is a critical component of this economic model. Governments and corporations will eventually need to retrieve from the artificial economic viability of biodiesel, for developed nations to progress toward energy independence.

The fact remains that countries like the United States imports more than 60% of its petroleum, with 2/3 used processed into gasoline and diesel. Petroleum imports are continuing to increase with some major reserves in unstable countries. The need for energy is not decreasing, therefore alternatives are required is uninterupted energy supplies are to continue. If the financial model for self sustaining domestic generation and environmentally friendly production can not be found, especially in developed countries, we will still be addressing security and energy independence with another foreign entity…just not in the Middle East.

Copyright 2007 Multi Platform Media, LLC ©

Article End Notes

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1. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, http://www.eere.energy.gov/
2. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biodiesel Production, http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.html
3. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biodiesel From Algae, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf
4. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biofeed, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/abcs_biofuels.html#biodfeed
5. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biomass Oil Analysis: Research Needs and Recommendations, http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/34796.pdf
6. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biodiesel Benefits
   http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_benefits.html
7. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Fuel Prices 2007
   http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/afpr_mar_07.pdf
8. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Refueling http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/infrastructure/refueling.html
9. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Renewable Diesel
   http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/renewable_diesel.html
10. US DOE - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Biodiesel Production Map, http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/biodiesel_plants.pdf

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11. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB),http://www.biodiesel.org/
12. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB),Biodiesel Production Fact Sheet, http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.PDF
13. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB), Map of Biodiesel Producers, http://www.biodiesel.org/buyingbiodiesel/producers_marketers/ProducersMap-Existing.pdf
14. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB),A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions, http://www.nbb.org/resources/reportsdatabase/reports/gen/20021001_gen-323.pdf
15. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB), Emissions Fact Sheet, http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/emissions.pdf
16. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB), BTU_Content_Final_Oct2005, http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/BTU_Content_Final_Oct2005.pdf
17. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB), Response to David Pimentel Biodiesel Life Cycle Analysis, 2005 http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/pressreleases/gen/20050721_pimentel_response.pdf http://www.biodiesel.org/members/membersonly/files/pdf/071305_Pimentel_Study_NBB_Detailed_Response.pdf

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18. Union of Concerned Scientist, Biodiesel, http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_vehicles/big_rig_cleanup/biodiesel.html#7
19. Union of Concerned Scientist, “Biodiesel: An Important Part of a Low Carbon Diet”, 2007, http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/clean_vehicles/ucs-biofuels-report.pdf
    

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20. US Environmental Protection Agency, Biodiesel Emissions Analysis Program, http://www.epa.gov/OMS/models/biodsl.htm
    


21. US Environmental Protection Agency, Biodiesel Fact Sheet, http://www.epa.gov/smartway/growandgo/documents/factsheet-biodiesel.htm
    


22. US Environmental Protection Agency,Smart Way Transport Partnership, Alternative Fuels Biodiesel, http://www.epa.gov/otaq/smartway/growandgo/documents/420f06044.pdf
23. US Environmental Protection Agency, Updated Certification Guidance for Alternative Fuel Converters, http://www.epa.gov/otaq/cert/dearmfr/cisd0602.pdf
24. US Environmental Protection Agency, “A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions”, 2002
    http://www.epa.gov/OMS/models/analysis/biodsl/p02001.pdf


25. US Environmental Protection Agency, “A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions”, 2002, http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_benefits.html

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26. US Energy Information Administration, EPAct: Alternative Fuels for Energy Security, Cleaner Air, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngmajorleg/enrgypolicy.html
27. US Energy Information Administration, Legislation, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/legislation/renewleg.html
28. US Energy Information Administration, Fuel Renewable, http://www.eia.doe.gov/fuelrenewable.html
29. US Energy Information Administration, Trends, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/rentrends.html
30. US Energy Information Administration, Biofuels in the US Transportation Sector, Feb 2007, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biomass.html
31. US Energy Information Administration, Energy Information Administration / Biodiesel Performance, Costs, and Use, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/environment/biodiesel.pdf
32. US Energy Information Administration, Biodiesel Analysis, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysis.htm;
33. Radich, Anthony, EIA, “Biodiesel Performance, Costs, and Use” , 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biodiesel/index.html
    http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biodiesel/pdf/biodiesel.pdf
34. US Energy Information Administration, Biodiesel Analysis
    http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/plugs/plbiodsl.html

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34. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/renewable_diesel.html
35. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Straight Vegetable Oil as a Diesel Fuel?”, 2006, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39733.pdf
36. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Biodiesel--Clean, Green Diesel Fuel: Great Fleet Fuel Gaining Popularity Rapidly, 2005, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37136.pdf
37. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Biodiesel Handling and Use Guidelines, 2006, http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/40555.pdf
38. McCormick, R.L, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Effects of Biodiesel on NOx Emissions, 2006, http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/38296.pdf
39. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Effects of Biodiesel Blends on Vehicle Emissions, 2006, http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/40554.pdf
40. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, An Overview of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel Life Cycles, 1998, http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/24772.pdf

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41. National Academy of Sciences, “Environmental, economic, and energetic costs/benefits of biodiesel/ethanol biofuels”, 2006, http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0604600103v1
    http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/30/11206

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42. European Biodiesel Board, http://www.ebb-eu.org/
43. European Commission, Biofuel, http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/biomass/biofuel/index_en.htm
44. Commission, Strategy for Biofuels 2006, http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/biomass/biofuel/com2006_34_en.pdf
45. European Commission, Action Plan for Biofuels 2005, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/res/biomass_action_plan/doc/2005_12_07_comm_biomass_action_plan_en.pdf
46. European Commission, Alternative Fuels Contact Group, “Market Development of Alternative Fuels” , 2003, http://engva.org/Pages/336/documents/Market%20Development%20of%20Alternative%20Fuels.pdf

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47. Research Association for Combustion Engines, “CO2 Mitigation through Biofuels in the Transport Sector. Status and Perspectives”, 2004, http://www.ifeu.de/landwirtschaft/pdf/co2mitigation.pdf
48. International Energy Agency, “Biofuels for Transport, An International Perspective”, 2004, http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2004/biofuels2004.pdf
49. Empa Technology and Society Lab, “Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Products: Environmental Assessment of Biofuels”, 2007,http://www.bioenergywiki.net/images/8/80/Empa_Bioenergie_ExecSumm_engl.pdf

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50. College of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences, Department of Agriculture & Applied Economics, 301 Conner Hall, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, “A Study on the Feasibility of Biodiesel Production in Georgia” , 2006, http://www.agecon.uga.edu/~caed/biodieselrpt.pdf
51. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa; Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa; Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa; Renewable Products Development Lab, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska; USDA/National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, Illinois, “Biodiesel Production Technology, August 2002-January 2004” , 2004, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/36244.pdf
52. BioEnergy Wiki, http://www.bioenergywiki.net/index.php/Biodiesel
53. Shawn P. Conley and Bernie Tao, Purdue University, “What is Biodiesel”, December 2006, http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/ID/ID-337.pdf
54. Shawn P. Conley and Bernie Tao, Purdue University, “Biodiesel Quality: Is All Biodiesel Created Equal?”,December 2006, http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/ID/ID-338.pdf
55. Allan Gray, Department of Agricultural Economics; Purdue University, “Is Biodiesel as Attractive an Economic Alternative as Ethanol?”,December 2006, http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/ID/ID-338.pdf
56. Collaborative Biodiesel, “How to make your own biodiesel”, http://www.biodieselcommunity.org/

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57. Wikipedia, Biodiesel, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
58. Wikipedia, Biomass to liquid, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_to_liquid
59. Wikipedia, Vegetable oil used as fuel, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oil_used_as_fuel
60. Wikipedia, Biodiesel around the world, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel_around_the_World
61. Wikipedia, Biodiesel production, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel_production
62. Wikipedia, Thermal depolymerization, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_depolymerization
    

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    Video End Notes

63. YouTube, European Commission, Better and Cleaner Transport for Europe, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUEA8Q3TV10

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